Description of Masculinities

Table of Contents Masculinities arguments Hegemonic Masculinity Social influences Conclusion References Masculinities imply different versions of describing manly composure and behaviour of both men and women. For three decades, several studies have been carried out in an attempt to come up with a clearer description of ‘masculinities,’ to no avail. Notably, perceptions of masculinity are evolving over time and among as well as within societies, resulting in an array of masculinities.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Description of Masculinities specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Whereas some researchers believe masculinities represent various patterns of behaviour inclined toward the roles that men play in the society, others concur that masculinities involve more than just men: that women can also show ‘masculinity’ if their actions and achievements are analogous to that of their male counterparts (Connell1998, pp2-6; Wong et al 2011, pp236-255). In an attempt to address masculinities, the initial recognition of the social construction of sexuality triggered more discussions on ‘values’ and the ‘normal’ roles of each gender(Connell1998, pp2-6). This was a significant step, nonetheless, in defining the impact of masculinity in the society. Today, the actual connotation of masculinity has evolved past the notion of ‘the role of men,’ though this notion also defines a ‘group’ of masculinity. An emphasis of compliance with masculine beliefs also goes beyond the manner in which breaking conventional rules may work positively toward building masculinity (Graef,Tokar, Kaut 2010, pp319-333).Gender issues are historically not constant, andthe involvedness of masculinities suggests disagreements that can impact change. Yet some view masculinities as representative of a variation between the feminine and masculine gender s, a dissimilarity that is today implying the variations in authority between males and females commonin the male chauvinistic cultures. Under such structures, the women are believed to be inferiorto men. There has been aremarkable doubt and conflictregarding inclusion of ‘masculinities’ in gender-basedactivities (Parent et al 2011, pp354-367). The arguments supporting or against masculinities have been based on fears that this could result in the suppression of the feminist ideology. Worries about the possible chocking of females of resources and the weakening of women empowerment programmes has been rising. Men are believed to be having the potential of manipulating women based on policies and ‘morals’ in favour of masculinities (Liang, Salcedo, Miller 2011, pp201-215). Masculinities arguments Studies of development of youthindicate multiple avenues of acquiring different characteristics in boys(Evers 2006, pp229-243). These findings conflict the common notion that an aggressive, forceful masculinity isconnected to biological components of the body(Connell1998, pp2-6).Steinfeldtet al (2011, pp247-259) suggests there is a local impact on acquiring information to inspire action on matters associated withmasculinity.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Additionally, there are connections among different masculinities. In view of these links, gender structures, relating to associations between men and women, also involve links among masculinity groups. These connections are arguably less significant within and across various groups involving the female gender. In most cases the masculinity links involvepecking order and social segregation, in which case, at least one group of masculinity isdominant in the society and other inferior caucuses form, resulting in their bearing of the brunt of disrespect or marginalisation (Kiselica, Englar -Carlson 2010, pp276-287). Hegemonic Masculinity Hegemonic masculinity is an expression used to refer to the sociallyfundamentalConstruction of manliness among several masculinities, in a social preference of the gender (Burriss,Welling, Puts 2011, pp1023-1027). Contests for hegemony or masculine preference among males often result in stress or even violent confrontations (Graef,Tokar, Kaut 2010, pp319-333).Collectivenessof masculinities can be achieved if groups within the social patterns are institutionalised in units such as military, rights movements or bureaucracies. On the other hand, informal groups such as friendship relations or families can also be used to define masculinities. These multiple ways in which manifests is a clear indication that masculinity is not just acknowledged at the personal level, but at the wider perspectives of the social fabric (Addis 2010, pp109-112; Wong et al 2010, pp170-181). Additionally, Evers (2006, pp232-237) believes masculinities are man ifest in mutual cultural ways such as myths andtraditions, media channels, social labels. The collective realism is wellmanifest in institutional ethnographies of learning centres and armed forcesorganisations. Collective reality forges a strong masculinity force, which complicates an evolution of gender roles among males through persuasion only. An individual male may see the light of treating both genders as able persons, but the organizational environment, or the influences of a peer groupmay alter the equation (O’Neil 2010, pp98-106; Pachankiset al 2011, pp142-152).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Description of Masculinities specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Social influences Liang, Salcedo, and Miller (2011, pp201-215) indicate that masculinities are established by intertwined social factorsdeveloped over tens or hundreds of years. Nonetheless, the wider perspectives offered on masculinity emphasizes the contributions made by the older generations,especially the impact of a father’s counsel on his son or daughter. Women are also arguably active participants in process of defining masculinities (Burns, Mahalik 2010, pp347-353).Generally, a woman is a parent, kin, friend, spouse, and work in the different environments where masculinities exist. They use such avenues to benignly shape masculinities in the society, as it is believed the procedure of establishing masculinity is mostly silent and almost hard to notice. However, it can manifest in highly structured systems such as in gender-segregated learning settings, military academies,and games in which one specific gender dominates the other (Connell1998, pp2-6). The close analysis of the development of masculinities, through past experiences,theinternal multifaceted nature of gender issues arise. There are usually contradictory psychological trends in every individual’s life (Leaseet al 2010, pp195-207).Different g ender stances in dialogue, which an individual canconsider, have existed from time immemorial. Conflicting demands may impose on males different behaviours, for instance, tosustain their own standing and to acknowledge women’s privileges. Males mayhave significant abilities such as to care for infants, but become surrounded by social situations that hardly press them to show these competences (Addis 2010, pp109-112). Thesecomplicated situations mayresult in women assuming such roles willingly or unwillingly depending on individual understanding. Such cases sometimes raise tension, which may degenerate into violence, because a number of males have difficulty relating with women. Some men despise femininity out of fear of what it entails and may seek tosabotage it (Parent et al 2011, pp354-367). Conclusion Generally, there are several masculinities based on the prevailing social values, biological factors and parental influence. Formal and informal masculinities exist, though t he latter can be easily influenced by persuasion. Economic transformation, conflict, generational change, and broader evolution of society beliefs, may contribute to the development of different masculinities.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In line with masculinities issues, there has been strong belief about the linkage ofindividual disparities in normative perception on masculinity, consistency with masculine role beliefs, and conflict that the masculine gender grapple with in an effort tolook for psychological assistance (Wong et al 2010, pp170-181). These three facets of masculinity are encompassed in the emotional analysis of the male gender and thought to beresulting issues of masculinity socializationachievements. Though the three issues overlap, they are different concepts, invoked only during proper evaluation of masculinities. Masculinity beliefs and traditional values on masculine roles reflect distinct features of normative manliness. In a nutshell, masculinity ideology implies the defined thresholds of the conduct of males. References Addis, M.E. 2010. Response to commentaries on the problem of masculinity.Psychology of Men   Masculinity, 11(2),pp109-112. Burns, S. M., Mahalik, J.R. 2010.Suicide and dom inant masculinity norms among current and former United States military servicemen.Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(5), pp347-353. Burriss, R.P., Welling, L.L.M., Puts, D.A. 2011. Mate-preference drives mate – choice: Men’s self-rated masculinity predicts their female partner’s preference for masculinity.Personality and Individual Differences, 51(8), pp1023-1027. Connell, R.W. 1998. â€Å"Introduction: Studying Australian Masculinities,† Journal of International Gender Studies, 3 (2), pp1†8. Evers, C. 2006. â€Å"How to Surf.† Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 30 (3), pp229-243. Graef, S.T., Tokar, D.M., Kaut, K.P. 2010.Relations of masculinity ideology, conformity to masculine role norms, and masculine gender role conflict to men’s attitudes toward and willingness to seek career counseling.Psychology of Men   Masculinity, 11(4), pp319-333. Kiselica, M.S., Englar-Carlson, M. 2010. Identifying, affirming, and buil ding upon male strengths: The positive psychology/positive masculinity model of psychotherapy with boys and men.  Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 47(3), pp276-287. Leaseet al. 2010. Masculinity and interpersonal competencies: Contrasting White and African American men.  Psychology of Men Masculinity,11(3), pp195-207. Liang, C.T.H., Salcedo, J., Miller, H. A. 2011. Perceived racism, masculinity ideologies, and gender role conflict among Latino men.Psychology of Men   Masculinity, 12(3), pp201-215. O’Neil, J.M. 2010. Is criticism of generic masculinity, essentialism, and positive-healthy-masculinity a problem for the psychology of men?Psychology of Men   Masculinity, 11(2), pp98-106. Pachankiset al 2011. The influence of sexual orientation and masculinity on young men’s tobacco smoking.  Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(2), pp142-152. Parent et al. 2011. Evidence of construct distinctiveness for conformity to masculine nor ms.Psychology of Men   Masculinity, 12(4), pp354-367. Steinfeldtet al. 2011. Masculinity socialization in sports: Influence of college football coaches.Psychology of Men   Masculinity, 12(3), pp247-259. Wong et al. 2010.Content analysis of Psychology of men masculinity (2000–2008).Psychology of Men   Masculinity, 11(3), pp170-181. Wong et al. 2011. The Inventory of Subjective Masculinity Experiences: Development and Psychometric Properties.Journal of Men’s Studies, 19(3), pp236-255. 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Jay Gatsby Shattered Dreams

Jay Gatsby Shattered Dreams Jay Gatsby: Shattered Dreams F. Scott Fitzgerald?s The Great Gatsby is a tragic tale of love distorted by obsession. Finding himself in the city of New York, Jay Gatsby is a loyal and devoted man who is willing to cross oceans and build mansions for his one true love. His belief in realistic ideals and his perseverance greatly influence all the decisions he makes and ultimately direct the course of his life. Gatsby has made a total commitment to a dream, and he does not realize that his dream is hollow. Although his intentions are true, he sometimes has a crude way of getting his point across. When he makes his ideals heard, his actions are wasted on a thoughtless and shallow society. Jay Gatsby effectively embodies a romantic idealism that is sustained and destroyed by the intensity of his own dream. It is also Gatsby?s ideals that blind him to reality.The Great GatsbyWhen he first meets Daisy Buchanan, Gatsby has ?committed himself to the following of a grail? (156). With extreme d edication, he stops at nothing to win her love back, after years of separation. Gatsby?s idealized conception of Daisy is the motivating force that underlies his compulsion to become successful. Everything he has done, up to this point, has been directed toward winning Daisy?s favor and having her back in his life. The greatest example of this dedication is the mansion he has constructed, ?a colossal affair by any standard...with a tower on one side, spanking new under a thin beard of raw ivy, and a marble swimming pool, and more than forty acres of lawn and garden? (9). Once a ?penniless young man without a past? (156), he transforms himself into a self-made millionaire and builds an extravagant mansion, all for the love of Daisy Buchanan. He also strategically places the mansion across the lake from Daisy?s house. From his window, Gatsby can see the blue colored lights of her house. Gatsby seems to be caught in a conflict between materialism and idealism that created and still def ines the American character.Starting from the first day that he meets her, Gatsby does everything within his power to please Daisy. Nothing has changed for him as far as his feelings for Daisy are concerned, even though it has been five years since their first meeting, and despite the fact that she has married Tom Buchanan. He ?revalue[s] everything in his house according to the amount of response it [draws] from her well loved eyes? (96). Inevitably, the two of them draw closer, but this in no way deters Gatsby from trying to make Daisy happy. He even terminates the employment of most of his servants because Daisy is afraid that they will begin gossiping about the afternoons she shares with Gatsby. ?The whole caravansary [falls] in like a card house at the disapproval in her eyes.? (120) Gatsby lives a selfless life in order to attain his dream. His loyalty to his dream is Gatsby?s most noble characteristic. Although it seems to be too idealistic, Gatsby ?[throws] himself into it w ith a creative passion, adding to it all the time, decking it out with every bright feather that [drifts] his way.? (101) His entire existence revolves around his dream; recapturing Daisy?s heart, taking her away from Tom and living happily ever after in his mansion he built with her approval in mind.Sadly enough for Gatsby, devotion is not the driving force that propels life in New York. Society is based on money and power, not faith and love. Daisy and Tom ?[smash] up things and creatures and then [retreat] back into their money or their vast carelessness.? (187) Even Gatsby finds himself forced to earn his money through illegal activities and gambling. He sees nothing wrong with these activities because they are part of his dream to have the resources to maintain his lifestyle the way he has become accustomed. Gatsby is more or less enthralled by the glamour and excitement of New York, seeing the huge city from an idealized perspective. Tom overlooks Daisy?s time with Gatsby as a ?presumptuous little flirtation,? (142), not the true love Gatsby hoped it would be. One could wonder if Daisy is worth the adoration Gatsby bestows on her. He truly loves her, but her shallow, materialistic nature must have ?tumbled short of his dreams? (101) at some point. Upon Gatsby?s death, after the loss of his dream, the reader is left guessing whether or not Gatsby held on to any fragment of his dreams about Daisy.Gatsby is totally in the dark to the reality of society, placing more importance on his dreams than on grasped experiences. He has built up his own dream world so perfectly that he can never accept the fact that Daisy is never going to leave Tom for him. This blindness leads to his ironic death. While he is trying to protect Daisy, Gatsby is killed by Wilson, who is avenging the death of his wife Myrtle. Wilson does this in a fit of rage, after he discovers, mistakenly, that Gatsby was the one to run his wife over in the street and leave her for dead. This assumpt ion, of course, is far from the truth. Gatsby dies from a gunshot and floats face down in the middle of his marble pool until his butler discovers his body. For almost five years, his idealism and his perseverance kept him, and his dream, alive. But sadly enough, he had no way of knowing that these very traits would also kill him. ?His dream must have seemed so close that he could hardly fail to grasp it. He did not know that it was already behind him.? (189) Like many Americans still believe today, Gatsby believed that material things alone constitutes the American Dream. The story itself, and the main figure, are tragic, and it is precisely the fantastic vulgarity of the scene which adds to the excellence of Gatsby?s soul its finest qualities, and to his tragic fate its sharpest edge. Gatsby is betrayed to the reader gradually, and with such tenderness, which in the end makes his tragedy a deeply moving one. Finally, before his death, Gatsby becomes disillusioned. His inner life o f dreams loses its power and he finds himself alone in the emptiness of a purely material universe. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. Ed. Matthew J. Bruccoli, New York: Charles Scribner?s Sons, 1925

Reaction Paper 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reaction Paper 2 - Essay Example who disobeys" (Baumrind, 1991, in Huang and Prochner 2004, p.229), while parental response refers to "the extent to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and acquiescent to childrens special needs and demands" (Baumrind, 1991, in Huang and Prochner 2004, p.229). The psychologists and social scientists distinguish four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and neglectful. Authoritative parents are â€Å"demanding and accepting† â€Å"controlling but not restricting,† authoritarian parents are demanding but rejecting and non-responsive, permissive parents are responsive but non-demanding, while neglectful parents are permissive and non-responsive (Ballantine 2001, p. 46; Huang and Prochner 2004, p.229). The studies of western researchers have shown strong relationship between the parenting styles and the child’s social competence, child’s school achievement, se lf-concept and goal setting, self-esteem and self-efficacy during the entire life and adolescent drinking and delinquency. All the studies have shown that authoritative parenting style always has favorable outcomes while the other three have demonstrated a negative impact on the children’s outcomes (In Huang and Prochner 2004, p.230). Parents play the major role in people’s lives, no matter whether they loved them as children or feared of and dreamt of parents’ divorce, as it happens in some families. Eric Berne (1975) discovered that parents’ scenarios and behavioral patterns determined the whole direction of an individual’s development. No matter what your attitude to the parents was, as time passes you start noticing (some people stay unaware of it) that you behave just as your parents did (even the negative traits that you did not like in your parents being copied). The behavioral patterns are than brought to the new family created by the grown children. They continue behaving just as their

Contract Law (Australia) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Contract Law (Australia) - Essay Example has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or abstain from doing something, such an act or abstinence or promise is called a consideration for the promise.† â€Å"A contract is an agreement enforceable at law made between two or more persons by which rights are acquired by one or more to acts or forbearance on the part of the other or others.† (Quoted in ReportBD.com) Since both the plaintiff and defendant maintained social relationship, the agreement between them was a bit social in nature, as there was no intention of either of the parties to enter into any legal remedies against non-compliance of either of the parties to the contract. There are two types of agreements i.e. Social agreements are the agreements which are just promises between two or more persons or parties, but do not enjoy the status of contract. For example one person invites another at his office to have dinner with him, but if he fails to host dinner, no legal remedy can be demanded, as it is social agreement in nature. Such promises do not bind the parties, to fulfil the promise, thus no legal rights between the parties are created, as in the case of Balfour and Balfour (1919) 2 KB 571: â€Å"When a husband failed to pay a promised allowance, the wife sued. The court announced the judgement in these words: "There are agreements between parties which do not result in contracts within the meaning of that term in our law. The ordinary example is where two parties agree to take a walk together (or) arrangements which are made between husband and wife. They are not contracts because the parties did not intend that they should be attended by legal consequences. Each house is a domain into which the Kings writ does not seek to run.† (Quoted in Duhaimes Canadian Contract Law Centre) On the other hand, there are some contracts, which are legal in nature, and the parties are bound to execute the promise and agreements. In case of not complying with which,

Bias in Historical Description Essay Example for Free

Bias in Historical Description Essay The article reviewed was Behan McCullagh’s Bias in Historical Description, Interpretation, and Explanation in which he gave a brief but thorough outlook on the manner to which historical accounts are peppered with biased analysis and his opinion on how historians would be able to diminish, if not fully obliterate, from the nature of recounting past events. Why History is Biased McCullagh started of his piece by constructing four reasons as to why he thought that historical writings are mainly biased. His first reason was that he believed historians misinterpreted evidences without properly asserting the truth about its justification. His second reason was that information may already have been omitted by historians in compiling such past accounts that cater to make their views balanced. The third reason was that he deems general description of any historical information may include certain facts that are possibly false due to the uncertainty of most available sources. Lastly, his fourth reason was in reference to causal explanations, concisely described in the article as events that substantially modify the likelihood of the event, which are usually focused on a few important causes that renders a misleading point of view in the reader’s comprehension of the process of events (McCullagh, 2000). McCullagh voiced out that historians who often make mistakes in incorporating biases in their interpretations are typically motivated rather than accidental. He also noted difference between personal and cultural biases, delineating that the latter is far more difficult to be rectified than the other as it is ingrained, yet maintaining that historians must still try to do away with personal bias. He then goes on to further illustrate the concept of bias in historical accounts (McCullagh, 2000). The concept of Bias in Historical Accounts: McCullagh elucidated on the point that historians choose subjects which are of interests to them, inevitably providing a more partial basis to their interpretation of historical information. Consequently, historians are said to be products of their environment or culture, which will naturally hold general notions about the past. Thus, written accounts by historians are subjected to the availability of information gathered and on the decisions made through constant debates on what gets included and what should be disregarded. Such process is said to most likely offer misleading descriptions of historical accounts that have a particular cause (McCullagh, 2000). However, McCullagh has held that preconceived notions about a historical subject that are not biased could be observed in occurrences that involves transformation within a country’s economy as well as social structures. Biases are only attached when selective causes are highlighted while others of equal importance are disregarded (McCullagh, 2000). The perception of biases in constructing history should be avoided as according to McCullagh it provides a deceptive account of the historical subject which may cause misunderstandings and unnecessary negative consequences in conflict-driven situations. McCullagh presented three reasons as to why there are some who think that there is no way to evade the prospect of bias in historical accounts. First was that the interests of historians are automatically considered in determining the historical importance of a subject, the information extracted and the word preferences to use. The second was that preconceptions of historians and their contemporaries have biased point of views and the third one is the reiterated thought that historians have ingrained cultural beliefs and principles (McCullagh, 2000). Overcoming Personal Bias: McCullagh presented his opinion on how historians could be able to avoid injecting biases in interpreting historical data. He stated that historians should be committed to standards of rational thinking that would bring about a justified description of the past. One way to impose this is through peer reviews so as to motivate historians to follow certain acceptable guidelines in rational inquiry. The role of the historian is an important factor in maintaining social responsibility and creating a fair account of historical events (McCullagh, 2000). He denotes that multiplicity in perspectives is another way to produce rational historical inquiry as it presents different views of witnesses which melds relevant information into one account (McCullagh, 2000). McCullagh also pondered upon the notion that for people to prevail over biases, historians must accept that historiography is limited within itself and that the end of the discipline should also be considered in interpreting the past in a postmodern view (McCullagh, 2000). Reference: McCullagh, C. B. 2000. â€Å"Bias in Historical Description, Interpretation, and Explanation. † History Theory 39(1): 39 – 66.

Marmon Group :: essays research papers

Accountants at the Marmon Group, Inc. act as internal consultants for the company in many different capacities. Jim Smith, Marmon’s prior director of cost management says that â€Å"the role of the management accountant is changing dramatically in most of our companies.† Managerial accountants are not seen any longer as simply clerks working on monthly reports but as valuable assets to senior management. Management accountants at Marmon work closely with managers by helping to analyze cost and operating information. They help in decision making by helping managers relate the operations of the company to the bottom line and company costs. According to Horngren, Sundem & Stratton (2005) management accountants are becoming â€Å"an advisor for managers about what information would be useful, what information is available, and how to get the needed information† (pg. 17). These accountants have become a key part of formulating the financial and business strategies of the company and are an essential part of working toward the overall profitability of the organization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Effective managerial accountants need a wide range of knowledge from both the accounting and the financial aspects of the business as well as overall general business administrative knowledge. A background in the use of general accounting practices as well as information for planning and control, performance evaluations, decision-making, and the statement of cash flows, along with financial statement analysis are key areas managerial accountants should have confidence in. To be an effective internal consultant it is vital that a strong understanding of the general functions of the company and how they interrelate to the ultimate profitability of the organization is a large portion of the consultant’s background.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Accountants gather information to be used in different kinds of ways both internally within the organization and externally for the general public and outside agencies. Information is produced for stockholders who may review a prospectus or an annual financial report when determining whether or not to invest in the company. Organizations such as banks and suppliers are given information in determining credit eligibility and purchase arrangements for the company.

Environmental Case Study Essay

Malathion is a type of pesticide that is usually used in health pest control programs. For example, in mosquito eradication. It is used in various areas and public recreation areas. Other synonyms of Malathion include ‘carbofos’ ‘maldison’ and mercaptothion. It has been used in the past, to eradicate mosquito, Mediterranean fruit fly and the West Nile virus. Malathion use needs to be assessed well. In any urban set up, people are at a very high risk of being affected in case of careless use of this pesticide. Towns support a large number of populations, together with their facilities. As a member of the town council, it would be very crucial for me to carry out a risk assessment exercise before embarking on Malathion use in and around the town. The states of risk assessment will include: hazard identification, dose-response, exposure and risk characterization. In hazard identification, the hazards of using Malathion are identified together with their consequences. Hazards can be grouped into several major groupings. One major group is hazards of Malathion use on human beings. In an urban set up, a large population of people is concentrated at one point. For example, what danger can Malathion use be, if absorbed or ingested into the human body or if present in water sources. If Malathion use can case disorders in unborn babies is also identified. Another category of hazard identification is, hazards Malathion use may cause on the natural environment. This includes vegetation and even soil components. Both domestic and wild animals could be affected by its use. Just like humans, what consequences does Malathion use result to, if absorbed or ingested into the animals’ bodies. The soil interaction with the pesticide means, Malathion use can as well be a hazard to it. Soil supports life on the planet. Chemicals that would change soil composition puts at risk other life forms that depend on that soil. It would be very vital to identify Malathion use hazard and consequences on the environment that people live in. It would also be important to identify hazards of Malathion components on the water bodies. People, animals and plants use water. Identifying the hazards Malathion- contained water may expose to them is crucial in any risk assessment exercise. Dose-response This term refers to the change in effect caused by differing levels of pesticide use (Malathion) in an organism. Organisms can be affected in differing ways, by differing levels of Malathion use. Dose-response assessment would be very critical since, it helps one to identify consequences of Malathion use on organisms. It would be good, to note the effects of Malathion on organisms that exist on that environmental set up. If differing levels of exposure or doses to a stressor triggers change in effect of organisms, the effects will assist in recognizing the risks people, animals or plants are exposed to (Baker et al). Exposure of Malathion use, in risk assessment causes changes in effect of organisms. At this state, chemical components of Malathion, plus their doses are analyzed to determine effects they may have on organisms. For example, quantities of Malathion that differ will not have similar effects on either organisms or the environment. For example chronic exposure to low levels of Malathion have been hypothesized to impair memory. (U. S department of Health and Human Services, retrieved on 2008). This would need to be established if it is true or not. Possible effects of Malathion doses should be established and research done on them, for confirmation before a mission to use Malathion is embarked on. Risks can be characterized depending on affected subjects, areas affected or systems affected. Previous studies have indicated human deaths from Malathion use. Others include intestinal disorders in children, children leukemia, lung damage and kidney damage. Human birth defects have been confirmed in women exposed to Malathion lice shampoo. Malathion results to brain damage and chromosome defects in human blood cells. Genes could also be lost. The immune system is weakened, where there is increased risk of bacteria or viral infection. Animal deaths have occurred and tumors detected on their bodies. Heart defects appear in exposed fish. (Epidemology, 1992: World Health Organization: Edwards et al, 2007) As a result of the risk assessment, I would not vote for the use of Malathion in Genericville city. The hazard exposed to the people, animals and the environment is too great. The effects outweigh any justification for Malathion use. It would be good if other options of controlling the pest were completely exhausted before using the Malathion. Economically, Malathion use could result to extra costs incurred to correct its negative effects on the people, animals and environment. It may lead to political conflicts. Where the community does not agree with Malathion use, use by the council authority will result to disagreements with the community. References Baker E. et al. 1978. Epidemic Malathion poisoning in Pakistan malaria workers Edwards J. et al. 2007. Worker exposure and a risk assessment of Malathion and fenthion Used in the control of Mediterranean fruit fly in south Australia. Environ. Re. 103 (1) Mediterranean fruit fly in south Australia. Environ. Re. 103 (1) Epidemology: Jan 1992. 3 (1): 32-39 U. S Department of Health and Human Services: agency for toxic substances and disease Registry- medical guidelines for Malathion. Retrieved on 15 April 2008 World health organization www. //who. int/entity/water-sanitation-health/dwq/chemicals/malathion/en Retrieved on 15April 2008